what is the feminist theory in sociology

Our perception of good and bad, of women, and the act of sex between men and women is a product of social relations. Feminism itself has become the subject of deconstruction and critique as racial, ethnic, cultural, and class biases in particular versions of feminism have been highlighted. But single women with children are segregated into ‘female’ income-tested benefits, and these programs are more stigmatized and pay much less. Key to patriarchy is what might be called the dominant gender ideology toward sexual differences: the assumption that physiological sex differences between males and females are related to differences in their character, behavior, and ability (i.e., their gender). Multicultural feminists explain how the idea of ‘sameness’ could counterintuitively be used as an instrument of oppression rather than liberation. Sociologists and economists have recently begun to study the part of the economy that involves caring for people. Despite the variations between different types of feminist approach, there are four characteristics that are common to the feminist perspective: One of the keen sociological insights that emerged with the feminist perspective in sociology is that “the personal is political.” Many of the most immediate and fundamental experiences of social life—from childbirth to who washes the dishes to the experience of sexual violence—had simply been invisible or regarded as unimportant politically or socially. Feminist sociology is a conflict theory and theoretical perspective which observes gender in its relation to power, both at the level of face-to-face interaction and reflexivity within a social structure at large. (See Rationality and Feminist Thought) Where patriarchal views revere the bravery of risking one's life in hunting, sport, or war, the cultural feminist reveres nurturing for its preservation of life. At one point, heterosexual marriage was the only lawful union between two people that was recognized and given full benefits in the United States. Feminist theory has impacted virtually all structures, systems, and disciplines, challenging traditional ontological and epistemological assumptions about human nature as well as ‘maleness’ and ‘femaleness.’ Modern feminism, which began 200 years ago, has evolved in three waves. This topic is studied both within social structures at large (at the macro level) and also at the micro level of face-to-face interaction. From: International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001, R. Tong, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001. The traditionally female characteristics that cultural feminists believe our culture has undervalued include nurturing, nonviolence, emotional sensitivity to the feelings of others, unselfishness, kinship with rather than domination of nature, acceptance of our physical bodies, humility, flexibility rather than rigid adherence to abstract principles, and intuition of wholes. Without this state involvement, and the sort of cultural change that cultural feminists advocate, women are likely to leave care work as other opportunities open up, or those who remain in it will pay a high price (in foregone wages) for doing this work. This means that the private return that markets will provide for such work will be lower than what is consistent with the broad social return. Dean's collection on Feminism and the New Democracy argues for the importance of increasing democracy not only at the level of the state but also in personal relationships. Ecofeminists focus on the connection among humans to the nonhuman world. Examples of traditionally male characteristics highly valued in our culture include independence, abstract rationality, and repression of emotion. Radical cultural feminists urge women to extricate themselves from the institution of compulsory heterosexuality. Feminist theorists are interested in the societal attitudes and values that support rape and they derive their evidence from macro-level observations of legal and social systems. By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. The feminist perspective also recognizes that women who suffer from oppression due to race, in addition to the oppression they suffer for being women, may find themselves in a double bind. Like racism, heterosexism can operate on an institutional level (e.g., through government) and at an individual level (i.e., in face-to-face interactions). Dorothy Smith’s development of standpoint theory was a key innovation in sociology that enabled these issues to be seen and addressed in a systematic way (Smith 1977). One example is research associated with the policy issue known as comparable worth. (See Social Welfare Policies and Gender.) Many of those who receive these benefits pay nothing to those who did the paid and unpaid work of raising children. Introduction 2. By contrast, western thought has glorified a ‘separative self’ that is autonomous. “Feminist theory is a major branch of theory within sociology that shifts its assumptions, analytic lens, and topical focus away from the male viewpoint and experience and toward that of women. Currently, a third wave of feminism is criticizing the fact that the first two waves of feminism were dominated by white women from advanced capitalist societies. Feminist sociology seeks to expose injustices in male-dominated sociological work. Feminist theory, or feminism, is support of equality for women and men. A ‘masculine’ set of programs is geared to individuals who make claims as earned rights based on past employment. Feminists such as Andrea Dworkin and Catharine MacKinnon, who have often referred to themselves as ‘radical feminists’, have been particularly outspoken on this subject and have challenged both the conservative and liberal perspectives. Feminism is about an emancipatory commitment to change: the conditions of life that are oppressive for women need to be transformed. 317), focus on. Feminist Theory, cont’d • Elaine Unterhalter (2005) notes that a fundamental debate exists between how cosmopolitans and communitarians frame discussions around ethics, international relations, and development policy. Men rely on social insurance schemes for retirement income, disability, and unemployment insurance, and women can make claims on these programs too when they are employed regularly or as wives or widows of earners. But the value of women's work went unrecognized, as did the extent to which men were dependent upon women's work rather than autonomous. It implies that we should respect whoever does nurturing, men or women, encourage the development of these skills in all humans, and esteem and reward those who do the work of caring. The liberal view that all forms of speech should go unregulated does not recognize that the power men have over women to define them in pornography has silenced women’s voices. Feminist theory arose as a reaction to the sexist, biological explanations for gender inequalities such as those of Talcott Parsons. More generally, feminists studying the state have argued that the seemingly gender-neutral notion of citizenship is in fact gendered; it has valorized men's typical activities such as worker and soldier, while failing to give rights and privileges for the parenting work that mothers do. This topic has received much more attention from third wave scholars and activists. As exemplified in the following quote, unlike the moralist and liberal theories, the feminist approach focuses on the effects of pornography on attitudes about women and various behaviors toward women, including but by no means limited to physical harms. Feminist theory explores both inequality in gender relations and the constitution of gender. Men ‘possess’ and use women through the sexualization of intimate intrusion. While the standpoint of women is grounded in bodily, localized, “here and now” relationships between people, due to their obligations in the domestic sphere, society is organized through “relations of ruling,” which translate the substance of actual lived experiences into abstract bureaucratic categories. Underlying the two-tiered benefit system are gender norms that define the home as a female sphere and outside work as a male sphere. The motivation for these programs was typically pronatalist rather than feminist, but they reduce the extent to which women bear the costs of privately rearing children, and in this sense are in women's interest. Marxist–socialist feminists claim it is impossible for anyone, especially women, to achieve true freedom in a class-based society. It is visual and verbal intrusion, access, and possession of women by men. Research in sociology, industrial psychology, and economics suggests that the sex composition of jobs exerts an effect on how much employers are willing to pay. Postmodern feminists challenge Western dualistic thinking. Liberal feminists cite women's oppression as rooted in social, political, and legal constraints. Inequality between the genders is a phenomenon that goes back at least 4,000 years (Lerner 1986). Brownmiller (1975, p.6) asserted that rape is “a conscious process of intimidation by which all men keep all women in a state of fear.” In other terms, rape and the fear it incites is one of many ways some men exert control over women. These activities did not count as moral since only exercising autonomy in the public spheres counted as moral. The ‘feminine’ programs support single mothers when a male breadwinner isn't present; the programs were seen to compensate for family failures. Although all feminists strive for gender equality, there are … That is, after statistically controlling for job characteristics that affect pay, such as requirements for skill or difficult working conditions, researchers find that predominantly female jobs pay less than male jobs (England 1992). Bec… Related terms: Anthropology; Political Science; Sociology The public/private conception, once so crucial to feminist critiques of traditional political theory, has been criticized for being a Western conception. Feminist theory has been at the forefront of new directions in political, social, and cultural theory. The feminist perspective has much in common with the conflict perspective and throughout this course, we will typically discuss feminist theory alongside conflict theory, although many consider it deserving of its own classification. Benhabib (1987) traces the ideal of separative autonomy through the liberal political philosophy of Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, and Kant. Sociology, Theory, and the Feminist Sociological Canon: Questioning the Use of “Doing Gender” as a Sociological Theory Show all authors. (See Comparable Worth in Gender Studies.) What is commonly understood as feminist theory accompanied the feminist movement in the mid-seventies, though there are key texts from the 19th and early- to mid-20th centuries that represent early feminist thought. In the 1960s, the second wave feminism, also known as the women’s liberation movement, turned its attention to a broader range of inequalities, including those in the workplace, the family, and reproductive rights. Part of the issue was sociology itself. One possible consequence of multiculturalism is that certain religious or traditional practices, that might disadvantage or oppress women, might be tolerated on the grounds of cultural sensitivity. Respecting traditionally female work is entirely consistent with this work being shared by men. Feminist Theory. FEMINIST SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY Celia Winkler Department of Sociology, The University of Montana, USA Keywords: Feminism, feminist, social theory, sociological theory Contents 1. Sex, these feminists contend, is the primary means by which men exert power over women. Difference feminism is an approach to feminist theory where different feminists have different views on sexuality, gender, class and race (Lloyd 5). This is one rationale for government to reward the work more generously, to ensure that enough of these services are supplied, and as a matter of equity. Feminism actually sees sociology itself as sexist as all previous theories: Functionalism, Marxism and Interactionism have failed to adequately explain gender differences in … Heterosexism is a system of attitudes, bias, and discrimination that favor male-female sexuality and relationships. For example, the authors of the study on women in Canadian political science (Arscott and Tremblay 1999) note the continued impact of Anglophone and Francophone divisions within the discipline and amongst feminists themselves—many Anglophone scholars rarely citing or teaching the work of their Francophone colleagues. Feminist critiques of heterosexism thus align with queer theory and the ideas of Michel Foucault, who studied the relationship between power and sexuality. It is not just the constitution of the ‘political’ which has been found to be problematic but also the very constitution of categories inherent to feminism such as ‘woman.’ Difference between women has been emphasized. Feminist theory encompasses a range of ideas, reflecting the diversity of women worldwide. Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. Feminist theory in sociology emerged out of the political struggles of the 1960s and 70s, and in many ways it parallels the wom- en’s movement. Many modern nations collectivize some of the costs of rearing children, through public financing of education and health care. The feminist perspective also criticizes exclusive understandings of sexuality, such as heterosexism. However, at the core of feminist sociology is the idea that, in most societies, women have been systematically oppressed and that men have been historically dominant. Pornography is a systematic practice of exploitation and subordination based on sex that differentially harms women…. When children are reared well, there are broad social benefits, including a lower crime rate, a more productive economy, better informed citizens, and better care for the next generation. In doing so, feminist theory shines a light on social problems, trends, and issues that are otherwise overlooked or misidentified by the historically dominant male perspective within social theory . They see sexist bias in our notions of what qualities people need to be in important positions, and the values determining which positions are rewarded most. If a job is filled largely by women, employers offer a lower wage. These developments are inherently indebted to the internal critique within feminism made by ‘women of color’ who have been pivotal in raising questions of ‘difference’ around such social axes as class, racism, ethnicity, sexuality, and the problematic of global inequities. Rather, they argue that the standards themselves are androcentric. We can recognize critical theory today in many feminist theories and approaches to conducting social science. Feminism and Feminist Sociology in the Post-War Era 4. Feminist sociology focuses on analyzing the grounds of the limitations faced by women when they claim the right to equality with men. This atomistic bias has also distorted neoclassical economics, according to many feminist thinkers (Ferber and Nelson 1993). Thus, sexism affects earnings not only through keeping women out of high-paying jobs, but also through devaluing the jobs in which women are concentrated. Though the feminist perspective focuses on diversity and liberation, it has been accused of being incompatible with multiculturalist policy. Yet recently sociologists of reproduction and ‘women's health’ have lost sight of core debates in feminist theory. Patriarchy refers to a set of institutional structures (like property rights, access to positions of power, relationship to sources of income) that are based on the belief that men and women are dichotomous and unequal categories. P. England, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001. Multiculturalism aims to allow distinct cultures to reside together, either as distinct enclaves within ostensively Western societies, or as separate societies with national borders. 1, contests the claim that women are innately unqualified to fill well-rewarded public roles such as politician, soldier, scholar, manager, or worker. Moralists’ objections to pornography on the basis of its appeal to prurient interests differs radically from the feminists’ concern on pornography’s effects on women. Global feminists stress the universal interests of women worldwide. Instead, only the radical feminist position will be discussed and whenever the term feminist is used it will refer to this position and it should be kept in mind that it is by no means representative of the feminist community generally. Feminist theory includes attempts to describe and explain how gender systems work, as well as a consideration of normative or ethical issues, such as whether a society's gender arrangements are fair. Such jobs include childcare, teaching, counseling, and social work. Controversies about this have arisen with both arranged marriages and female genital mutilation. Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, fictional, or philosophical discourse. The radical and cultural feminists argue that traditionally male values are inappropriate for human behavior by either men or women in either domestic or public roles, at least without greater balance from traditionally feminine values than currently obtains. Some thinkers, called radical or cultural feminists, make a different critique. She recognized from the consciousness-raising exercises and encounter groups initiated by feminists in the 1960s and 1970s that many of the immediate concerns expressed by women about their personal lives had a commonality of themes. • Cosmopolitans: people working in development who advocate for universal human rights (such as gender equality) that can help orient national and local legislation and policy. The first wave dealt with suffrage; the second centered on equal access; and the current wave is focusing on global equality. Search Google Scholar for this author. Liberal Feminism M odern liberal feminism bears the legacy of early Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical discourse. People have always benefited from women's practice of these skills and values, but this benefit is seldom acknowledged in patriarchal societies. However, from a multiculturalist perspective, such traditions must be respected even if they seem to directly violate ideas about freedom or liberty. From this standpoint, Smith observed that women’s position in modern society is acutely divided by the experience of dual consciousness. It is also found in critical race theory, cultural theory, gender, and queer theory, as well as in media theory and media studies. A fundamental charge of feminist scholarship in general is to emphasize the validity of women’s experience in the social world (Sydie, 1987). Gender is a central focus or subject matter of the perspective. Feminist sociology is a conflict theory and theoretical perspective which observes gender in its relation to power, both at the level of face-to-face interaction and reflexivity within a social structure at large. If we see the value of the work that women have traditionally done as nurturers, this does not imply that women should stay at home and be full-time mothers. Focuses include sexual orientation, race, economic status, and nationality. Write two paragraphs answering the following questions: What is What Is An Argument In Critical Thinking Slideshare feminism? The analytical tools which feminist theory developed to critique gendered discourses drew on a variety of sources from sociology of gender to French theory's critique of those forms of dualistic thinking that subordinated the feminine ‘other.’ Increasingly, these analyses began to be turned upon the subject of feminism itself. First-wave feminists fought for basic citizenship rights, such as the right to vote, while third wave feminists are concerned with more complex social movements, like post-structuralism. At the turn of the century, the first wave of feminism focused on official, political inequalities and fought for women’s suffrage. Gender relations are not immutable: they are sociological and historical in nature, subject to change and progress. (Examples of feminist works with this theme are Held 1993, Keller 1986, Nelson 1996, Starhawk 1987, Tuana 1993.). Although largely originating in the West, feminism is manifested worldwide and is represented by various institutions committed to activity on behalf of women’s rights and interests. D. Richardson, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001, Female Genital Mutilation; Feminist Theory: Psychoanalytic; Feminist Theory: Radical Lesbian; Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Youth; Gay/Lesbian Movements; Gender and Reproductive Health; Gender Differences in Personality and Social Behavior; Gender Ideology: Cross-cultural Aspects; Heterosexism and Homophobia; Lesbians: Historical Perspectives; Male Dominance; Masculinities and Femininities; Prostitution; Queer Theory; Rape and Sexual Coercion; Rationality and Feminist Thought; Regulation: Sexual Behavior; Sex Offenders, Clinical Psychology of; Sex-role Development and Education; Sex Therapy, Clinical Psychology of; Sexual Attitudes and Behavior; Sexual Behavior: Sociological Perspective; Sexual Harassment: Legal Perspectives; Sexual Harassment: Social and Psychological Issues; Sexual Orientation and the Law; Sexual Orientation: Biological Influences; Sexual Orientation: Historical and Social Construction; Sexual Risk Behaviors; Sexuality and Geography; Teen Sexuality; Transsexuality, Transvestism, and Transgender, C. 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